2.4: From Caesar to Civilis: Rome and the Low Countries _ T _

• History
• Middelbare school
• havo, vwo
• Leerjaar 1

The Time of Greeks and Romans

2.4: From Caesar to Civilis: Rome and the Low Countries

people in this lesson

Julius Caesar

consul / dictator

Rome

Cleopatra

queen

Egypt

Octavian Caesar

a.k.a "Augustus"

1st emperor

Rome

Vercingetorix

chieftain

Gaul

Mark Anthony

Caesar's friend

Rome

Important dates in this lesson:

58 BC: Julius Caesar begins the Gallic Wars to conquer Gaul.

52 BC: Caesar defeats Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia.

49 BC: Caesar crosses the Rubicon River, starting a civil war against Pompey.

44 BC: Julius Caesar is assassinated by senators who fear he wants to be king.

31 BC: Octavian defeats Mark Anthony and Cleopatra in a massive naval battle.

27 BC: Octavian receives the title Augustus and becomes the first emperor.

1st & 2nd Century AD: The Pax Romana; a long period of peace and wealth.

69 AD: Julius Civilis leads the Batavian Revolt against the Romans.

1. The Conquest of Gaul: Caesar vs. Vercingetorix - how the general Julius Caesar defeated the Gallic leader Vercingetorix to conquer Gaul.

2. Crossing the Rubicon: From General to Dictator - how Caesar started a civil war against his rival Pompey and seized absolute power.

3. Murder in the Senate: The End of the Republic -  why a group of Senators murdered Caesar and how his death led to even more chaos.

4. Hail Augustus: The Birth of an Empire -  how Octavian became the first Roman emperor and started a long period of peace.

5. Life on the Limes: Romans in the Low Countries - how life in the Netherlands changed as local tribes adopted Roman habits and culture.

6. Friends Turned Enemies - the Batavian Revolt, where local allies fought back against the Roman army.

In this lesson :

This is a sculpture of emperor Augustus.

Augustus was the first emperor of the Roman empire.  An emperor is a monarch.

That means that the Roman Republic did not last forever.

After about 500 years of being a republic, Rome turned into a monarchy again. How did this happen? 

First, we must study Augustus' uncle: Julius Caesar.

king or emperor? And what is the difference?

Simply put: a king rules a country.

En emperor rules and empire.

So when a country conquers other countries and becomes an empire, it is possible that the king becomes an emperor.

A king and an emperor are both monarchs.

A monarch is not elected by the people. A monarchy is hereditary (erfelijk), so the next monarch is mostly the eldest son.

1. The Conquest of Gaul: Caesar vs. Vercingetorix 

The story of how Rome transformed from a republic into a massive empire begins with the ambition of one man: Julius Caesar. Before he became the most famous man in history, Caesar was a general looking for glory, and he found it in the Gallic Wars (58-51 BC). To the north of Italy lay Gaul (modern-day France), a vast land inhabited by many different Celtic groups. These people did not live in cities like the Romans; instead, they lived in a tribe, a group of people sharing the same language, culture, and history, usually ruled by a chieftain. The Romans considered them barbarians, but the Gauls were fierce warriors. Caesar spent nearly a decade fighting there, capturing slaves and looting gold. 

The Gauls rebelled against Rome and Caesar spent the next 9 years fighting the Gauls. Caesar's soldiers won many victories and they loved Caesar. After all, a succesful commander could distribute a lot of war booty between his men.

The soldiers became more loyal to Caesar than to the Senate in Rome.

Clash between the Roman army (bottom) and Gallic or Celtic warriors. The Gauls did not have a professional army like the Romans. They also lacked the superior training and equipment that the Roman legionaries had.

Map of Gaul, showing the route of conquest that Caesar and his army took. 

The climax of this conflict came at the Battle of Alesia, where Caesar faced the legendary Gallic leader Vercingetorix. Despite being outnumbered, Caesar built a massive wall around the Gauls, starving them into surrender. Vercingetorix threw his armor at Caesar's feet to save his people, marking the total conquest of Gaul. This victory made Caesar incredibly rich and popular with the common people of Rome, but it made the politicians in the Senate terrified of his growing power.

Caesar ordered his soldiers to build a wall around the mountain of Alesia. This way, vercingetorix was trapped inside his fortress on top of the mountain.

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar, painting made in 1899, by Lionel Noel Royer

Caesar, Vercingetorix and the battle of Alesia have been pictured in several Asterix albums.

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

primary and secondary sources

We already learned about primary and secondary sources. Just to remind you:

A primary source is a source that was created in the time of the events it describes.

A secondary source is a source that was created after the events it describes.

(a secondary source often uses primary sources for its information)

This book was written BY Julius Caesar himself, during the Gallic Wars. Therefor it is a primary source.

This is a modern book, written by a modern author ABOUT Julius Caesar. Therefor it is a secondary source.

During his time in Gaul, Caesar kept a diary. This diary is called "the Gallic War", or in Latin: "commentarii de bello gallico".  The words in this book are written by Caesar himself, more than 2000 years ago. So it is a primary source. Even if the original text is TRANSLATED into modern Dutch, and printed in a modern book: it still remains a primary source!!

2. Crossing the Rubicon: From General to Dictator 

The Senate, fearing that Caesar would try to become a king, ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome as a private citizen. Caesar knew that if he did this, his enemies would arrest him. Faced with a terrible choice, he decided to march his army across the Rubicon River, the border of Italy, in 49 BC. By bringing his soldiers into Italy, he started a civil war, a war between two groups of people living in the same country. His main rival was Pompeius (known as Pompey), a former ally who sided with the Senate to stop Caesar. Although Pompey had a larger army, Caesar’s troops were more experienced and loyal.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon. This was a decisive moment, because now Caesar openly defied the orders from the senate to leave his troops in Gaul. There was no turning back for Caesar anymore. He had two choices: be killed as an enemy of Rome, or become the ruler of Rome. 

Bust of Pompey, copy of an original from 70–60 BC,

Session of the Senate, modern painting

They chased Pompey all the way to Egypt, where Pompey was eventually killed. In Egypt, Caesar also met Cleopatra, the queen, and helped her secure her throne, forming a powerful political and romantic connection. When Caesar finally returned to Rome, he was unstoppable. He forced the Senate to declare him dictator for life. A dictator was a ruler with absolute power, originally intended only for emergencies, but Caesar clearly planned to keep this power forever. He reorganized the calendar (creating the Julian calendar), gave grain to the poor, and put his own face on coins—something only kings did.

Caesar and Cleopatra as seen in a Hollywood movie.

denarius with the image of Julius Caesar

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

3. Murder in the Senate: The End of the Republic

However, the Roman elite hated the idea of a monarchy. They were proud of their Republic and believed that no single man should hold all the power. On March 15, 44 BC, a group of senators surrounded Caesar in the Senate house. They stabbed him 23 times, believing they were saving liberty. But instead of restoring the Republic, Caesar’s murder plunged Rome into chaos. A new series of wars broke out between Caesar's assassins and his supporters, led by his right-hand man Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) and his adopted son, Octavian Caesar. Eventually, the alliance between Mark Anthony and Octavian broke down. Mark Anthony allied himself with Cleopatra in Egypt, while Octavian controlled the west. The two sides clashed in a massive naval battle, which Octavian won. With his rivals dead, Octavian was the only man left standing. He was just 32 years old, and he held the fate of the entire Roman world in his hands.

The senators encircle Julius Caesar in a painting by 19th-century artist Carl Theodor von Piloty.

 “Ides of March” (= March 15)  gold coin commemorating the assassination of Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 44 BC 

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

4. Hail Augustus: The Birth of an Empire 

Octavian was smarter than Julius Caesar; he knew he couldn't call himself "king" or "dictator" without getting murdered. Instead, he claimed he was restoring the Republic, but in reality, he kept all the power—control over the army, the laws, and the money—for himself. In 27 BC, the Senate gave him the title Augustus, which means "the Exalted" or "the Reverend." This moment marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. Augustus became the first emperor (from the Latin imperator, meaning commander). Interestingly, our Dutch word "keizer" comes directly from the name "Caesar," which Augustus used as a family name. Under his rule, a long period of peace and stability began, known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). For roughly two hundred years, trade flourished, roads were built, and people could travel safely from the Middle East to the Netherlands using the same silver denarii (coins) to buy goods. It was a golden age where the empire became rich, organized, and relatively safe.

Right; One of Augustus’ most famous portraits is the so-called Augustus of Primaporta of 20 B.C (the sculpture gets its name from the town in Italy where it was found in 1863). 

Left: Colored reconstruction of the image after examining the pigments present.

5. Life on the Limes: Romans in the Low Countries

This Pax Romana extended all the way to the Low Countries (the modern-day Netherlands), which became the northern border of the empire. The Romans built a heavily fortified border called the Limes along the Rhine River to keep out Germanic tribes. Life here changed dramatically due to Romanisation, the process where conquered peoples began to adopt Roman culture, language, and habits. The Romans built bathhouses, stone villas with floor heating, and temples. Rich locals started wearing togas, learning Latin, and drinking wine instead of beer. 

Modern map of the Netherlands in Roman times. The Batavians lived in today's Betuwe region.

 The Roman baths in Bath, in the south of present-day England, were constructed in the 2nd century AD. First elements (temple) were created between 60 and 70 AD.

modern reconstruction of the temple at Elst. The original temple was built to honour the Batavian god Hercules Magusanus.

Roman Amphitheater in Arles, France. 

However, the most important aspect of this relationship was the alliance. The Romans needed soldiers, so they made agreements with local tribes. If the tribes provided young men to fight in the Roman army, the tribe would pay fewer taxes. After 25 years of service, these soldiers would gain Roman citizenship. This was a huge prize: citizens had legal rights, could not be tortured, and gained social status. Many veterans returned to the Netherlands with their savings, settling near the camps and starting families, mixing Roman and Germanic traditions.

A Roman legionair (present-day drawing).

A diploma of a Batavian soldier, proving he served time in the army. The diploma, dated 98 AD, was found at Elst.

Roman soldiers being trained. (present-day drawing).

6. Friends Turned Enemies: The Batavian Revolt

One of the most famous local tribes was the Batavians, who lived in the river area of the Netherlands. They were considered elite warriors and were often used as bodyguards for the emperor himself. However, in 69 AD, the relationship turned sour. The Romans began demanding too many soldiers and treating the Batavian leaders poorly. A Batavian nobleman named Julius Civilis, who had served in the Roman army for years and only had one eye, decided he had had enough. He organized a Batavian Rebellion against Rome. Using his knowledge of Roman tactics, Civilis managed to unite several tribes and even captured major Roman forts. It was a massive shock to the Romans that their "loyal allies" had turned against them. Although the Romans eventually sent a massive army to crush the revolt, they respected the fighting spirit of the Batavians. In the end, a peace was negotiated: the Batavians submitted to Rome again, but they were treated with more respect, continuing to serve as brave soldiers on the frontier, guarding the line between civilization and the wild north.

The conspiracy of Civilis, painting by Rembrandt van Rijn, 1661/1662

Modern reconstructions of Batavian cavalry soldiers (in the Roman army)

Local people were not allowed to join the garrison in their own territory after 69 AD. The Romans feared locals were too likely to side with their people against Rome.

Some Batavians were stationed at Hadrian’s Wall in England. They were there to protect the empire from the Scottish Celts. So army service not only got you citizenship, it also got you places!

Modern reconstructions of a Batavian cavalry soldier's armour and equipment.

military mask of a Batavian soldier, 1st century AD. Museum Het Valkhof, Nijmegen.

Word Duty

KEY WORDS

The Gallic Wars: The wars (58-51 BC) in which Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and defeated their leader Vercingetorix.

Tribe: A group of people, often of related families, who live together, sharing the same language, culture, and history.

Civil war: A war between two groups of people living in the same country.

Dictator: A ruler with absolute power, but who is not a monarch.

Augustus: The title that the Senate gave to Octavian, meaning "the Exalted" or "the Reverend."

Emperor: A monarch who rules an empire (derived from the Latin imperator).

Pax Romana: "Roman Peace." A period of relative peace and stability within the Roman Empire during the first and second centuries AD.

Denarius: The most common silver coin used in the Roman Empire. Plural: denarii

Limes: the northern border of the Roman Empire. 

Romanisation: The process where conquered peoples adopted Roman culture, language, and habits (becoming more like the Romans).

Alliance: An agreement between two or more parties to help each other (in this context, tribes providing soldiers in exchange for protection and rights).

Batavians: a Germanic tribe that lived in the modern-day Netherlands in the region that is now the "Betuwe".

Batavian Rebellion: The revolt (69 AD) against Rome fought by the Batavians.

Summary 2.4

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What you can do or explain after this lesson

• what a creation narrative is
• what the evolution theory is
• how both theories are used to explain where humans come from
• what the "Out of Africa" theory means
• how you can  read the family tree of   modern humans
• what paleontologists and archeologists do

TEST YOURSELF

What you can explain or do after this lesson:

1. What was a "tribe" in the context of the Gauls, and how was it different from how Romans lived?
2. Who was Vercingetorix, and what significant action did he take at the end of the Battle of Alesia?
3. Why did Julius Caesar decide to march his army across the Rubicon River, and what conflict did this start?
4. What title did Caesar force the Senate to give him, and why did this worry the Roman politicians?
5. Why did a group of senators assassinate Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC?
6. Who were the two main rivals that fought for power after Caesar’s death, and who eventually won?
7. What does the title "Augustus" mean, and what political change did it mark for Rome?
8. Describe what the "Pax Romana" was and name one benefit people had during this time.
9. What was the Limes, and where was it located in the Low Countries?
10. Explain the term "Romanisation" and give two examples of how life changed for people in the Low Countries because of it.
11. How did the "alliance" between the Romans and local tribes work? What did the tribes give, and what did they get in return?
12. Who was Julius Civilis, and why did he lead the Batavian Rebellion against the Romans?

What you can do or explain after this lesson

• what a creation narrative is
• what the evolution theory is
• how both theories are used to explain where humans come from
• what the "Out of Africa" theory means
• how you can  read the family tree of   modern humans
• what paleontologists and archeologists do

1. A tribe was a group of people sharing the same language, culture, and history, usually ruled by a chieftain. Unlike Romans who lived in cities, tribes lived in scattered communities.
2. Vercingetorix was the leader of the Gauls. At the end of the Battle of Alesia, he surrendered by throwing his armor at Caesar's feet to save his people.
3. He crossed the Rubicon to avoid being arrested by his enemies in Rome. This action started a civil war (specifically against Pompey and the Senate).
4. He forced them to declare him dictator for life. This worried politicians because it looked like he wanted to be a king and hold power forever.
5. They believed Caesar was becoming a tyrant/king and thought that killing him would restore the Republic and liberty.
6. Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) and Octavian. Octavian won (after a naval battle).
7. "Augustus" means "the Exalted" or "the Reverend." It marked the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire (monarchy).
8. The "Pax Romana" was a period of "Roman Peace" and stability lasting about 200 years. Benefits included safe travel, trade, and economic prosperity.
9. The Limes was the fortified northern border of the Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, it ran along the Rhine River.
10. Romanisation is the process where conquered peoples adopt Roman culture. Examples: building bathhouses/stone villas, speaking Latin, drinking wine, or wearing togas.
11. Local tribes provided young men to fight in the Roman army (serving for 25 years). In return, the tribe paid fewer taxes, and the soldiers received Roman citizenship and rights upon retirement.
12. Julius Civilis was a Batavian nobleman and Roman veteran. He led the rebellion because the Romans were treating the Batavians poorly and demanding too many soldiers.

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