2.3 A new power rises: Rome _ T _

• History
• Middelbare school
• havo, vwo
• Leerjaar 1

AGE 2. The Time of Greeks and Romans

2.3 a new power rises: Rome

THEORY

people in this lesson

Hannibal

general

Carthage

Marius

consul / general

Rome

Scipio 

consul / general

Rome

Romulus & Remus

founders of

Rome

Tarquinius the Proud

last king of Rome

Important dates in this lesson:

753 BC: founding of Rome. Romulus becomes the first king.

509 BC: Rome becomes a republic.

The Punic Wars 264 - 146 BC

                 264 - 241 BC: First Punic War

                 218 - 202 BC: Second Punic War

                 149 - 146 BC: Third Punic War

100 BC: Marius reforms the Roman army 

1. A small town with a big future – How a tiny city on the river Tiber could grow into a powerful state.

2. From kings to a republic – Why the Romans threw out their last king and chose a republic.

3. Patricians, plebeians and duties – Who the different social groups were and what citizens had to do for Rome.

4. Ruling the republic: SPQR in action – How the Senate, consuls and assemblies shared power and used veto.

5. Expanding the republic: legions and Punic Wars – How Roman legions fought Carthage and turned Rome into an empire.

6. Greek ideas and a new army – How the Romans copied Greek culture and created a professional army under Marius.

In this lesson :

introduction

Think back to what you learned about ancient Greece: small city-states like Athens and Sparta, busy harbours, brave hoplites in a phalanx, and stories about gods on Mount Olympus. For a long time, the Greek world was the most important centre of culture around the Mediterranean. Greek thinkers asked big questions, Greek artists made beautiful statues, and Greek ships sailed to many coasts.

Now, in this new lesson, we move our eyes a little to the west. On the Italian “boot” another people were rising: the Romans. At first, Rome was just one of many small towns. The Romans copied a lot from the Greeks: their gods, their architecture, even parts of their alphabet. But they also did something the Greeks never fully managed: they built a huge, lasting empire.

1 – A small town with a big future

More than 2,700 years ago, Italy looked very different. There were many small peoples and cities, and none of them knew that one of these cities would one day rule a huge empire. On the banks of the river Tiber, in central Italy, a small town began to grow. Its name was Rome. At first Rome was just one of many villages on the hills. The people were farmers and shepherds. They built simple houses of wood and mud.

Yet the position of Rome was very clever: it lay on important trade routes, close to the sea but not too close to be attacked easily. Traders passed by with goods, and soldiers could move quickly through the region. Step by step, this small town would become the centre of a superpower, a very strong and powerful state that controlled many other lands. In this lesson we follow how Rome changed from a village with kings into a republic and then into the heart of an expanding empire.

This bronze sculpture of the wolf that rescued Romulus and Remus was made in about 500BC. The babies were added in the AD1400s.

When Rome was a monarchy, the city was still very small. 600 years later Rome would have more than a million inhabitants...

The twins and the wolf: Romulus and Remus

The Romans told a famous story about the beginning of their city. Two baby boys, Romulus and Remus, were born into a royal family. Their wicked uncle had stolen the throne and ordered the babies to be killed. A servant could not do it. Instead, he put them in a basket and pushed it into the river Tiber.

The basket floated to the riverbank. There, a she-wolf found the babies. Instead of eating them, she licked them clean and gave them milk. Later, a shepherd discovered the boys and took them home. He and his wife raised Romulus and Remus as their own sons.

When the twins grew up, they chased away the wicked uncle and decided to build a city where they had been saved. They argued about who should lead. The quarrel turned violent, and Romulus killed Remus. Romulus became the first king and gave his name to the city: Rome.

She-Wolf Suckling Romulus and Remus . Painting made in 1589.

This bronze sculpture of the wolf that rescued Romulus and Remus was made in about 500BC. The babies were added in the AD1400s.

2 – From kings to a republic

In its early days Rome was ruled by kings. The Romans believed they had seven kings in their first centuries. Some may have been real, others probably only exist in stories. The last king was called Tarquinius the Proud. His name already tells us something. He behaved like a tyrant, a cruel and unjust ruler. Together with his family he ignored the old customs and listened less and less to the Senate, a group of wise, older men who advised the king.

Finally the Romans had enough. In 509 BC they drove out Tarquinius and his family. This was a turning point in Roman history. The Romans decided that they did not want a king ever again. One man with all the power was simply too dangerous. Instead they created a republic, a form of government without a king. The Romans were very proud of this new system. On their buildings and banners they used the letters SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus – the Senate and the People of Rome. It meant that the state was ruled together by the Senate and the citizens, not by one man alone.

Romulus was the founder of Rome and also its first king. After Romulus, six more kings would rule Rome. All that time Rome was a monarchy.

Even a king can't do everything by himself. The Roman kings were advised by a group of rich, older men: the senators.

The assembly where they met to discuss politics was called the senate. 

But in the end it was the king who could make all the decisions himself.

3 – Patricians, plebeians and the duties of citizens

Not all Romans were equal. At the top stood the patricians, the old ruling families of Rome. Many senators and consuls came from this group. Below them were the plebeians, ordinary free people such as farmers, craftsmen and small traders. They made up the majority of the population. Poorer people, women, slaves and foreigners had almost no political rights and could not take part in the assemblies.

However, every free male citizen had duties towards Rome. They had to pay taxes and, most importantly, serve in the army when needed. For a long time, only land-owning citizens could be soldiers. This meant that farmers had to leave their fields and fight in wars. If they were away for a long time, their farms could be ruined or taken over by rich landowners. Victory in war brought land, slaves and booty – valuable goods taken in war – but it also brought problems at home. Many small farmers became poorer while rich patricians grew even richer. This tension between rich and poor would later change Roman politics and the army forever.

Plebeians were the ordinary people, like shoemakers, carpenters, bakers, construction workers etc. 

But they were free men, not slaves. They were citizens of Rome, and therefore they had certain rights, like the right to vote during elections.

Patricians were the richest Roman families. They were also called the nobles / aristocrats (edelen)  because they owned most of the land and lived in beautiful villas. Children of patricians were automatically patricians too.

4 – Ruling the republic: SPQR in action

In the republic, power was divided to prevent a new tyrant from taking over. The Senate remained very important. It made laws and advised on war, peace and money. Two consuls were chosen each year to lead the government and command the armies. A consul was the highest official in the republic, but his power was limited. First, he held office for only one year. Second, there were always two consuls at the same time. Each consul could stop the other if he disagreed. This was called a veto, which means “I forbid” in Latin.

There were also people’s assemblies where citizens could vote for laws and for officials. Over time the plebeians, the non-patrician people of Rome, gained more influence. At first they had almost no say in politics, even though they made up most of the army. Step by step, through protests and even strikes, they forced the patricians to share power. They created their own plebeian assembly and elected people’s tribunes to protect their interests. A people’s tribune could use his veto to stop a law that harmed ordinary people. All these checks and balances were meant to stop one man from getting too much power again.

The Republic of Rome was often shown in Latin as the abbreviation SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanorum – the senate and people of Rome) as was shown on the military standards.

the assembly of the senate in Rome. The senators, dressed in white togas with a purple edge,  discuss the politics of the republic. 

Politics of the Republic (2)

The plebeians were not happy that they could not become senators themselves.

They threatened to leave the city. Without the work of the plebeians the city could not function.

This helped. The patricians gave the plebeians some power. Each year they could elect two Tribunes. Tribunes were representatives of the plebeians. They made sure that the consuls not only made decisions that were good for patricians, but also for the plebeians.

The tribunes had one very strong power; the power of veto.

Veto means “I forbid”. With this power the tribunes could stop any decision made by the consuls.

See a graphic overview of Republic Politics here

the senators are discussing a new law that the consuls want to install

a tribune of the plebeians wants to use his veto to stop the new law of the consuls

the two consuls listen to the tribune who wants to stop their new new law

these are two "lictores", bodyguards of the consuls

The senate during the Roman Republic

the Roman senate. Modern illustration

When the geese saved Rome (part 1)

There is a legend that in the year 387 BC the Gauls (or Celts) crossed the Alps and entered the Italy. They came searching for new land for their people and of course the wealth of the fertile north of Italy.

The Gauls heard about the power and wealth of Rome and so they wanted it for themselves. The Romans were warned of the advance of these barbarians from the north and went out to do battle. The Gauls were more terrible than the Romans could have imagined. Many of them fought naked and their bodies were painted and tattooed with strange designs. Their battle cries were horrifying. Their weapons were wicked and they wielded them with an ease that no Roman could match. The Roman soldiers, every one, turned tail and ran back through the city gates, leaving the gates wide open in their panic. They entrenched themselves on the Capitoline Hill.

At length the Gauls decided the Romans really were cowards and they entered the city, sacking, looting, and burning as they went. But they could not breech the high walls of the Capitoline Hill.

‘The Celts lived north of Italy. The Romans called them Gauls (Galliërs)

When the geese saved Rome (part 2)

Then one night one of the Gaulish spies said he had found a way. They could climb up the back of the hill, up a steep cliff by means of handholds. If they climbed the hill quietly they could gather a strong enough force to battle their way to the gate and let their fellows in.

Now, the Capitoline Hill was the site of the temple of Juno. Since geese were sacred to Juno, the priests kept a flock of geese on the hill. It is lucky that they did for on the night the Gauls decided to scale the back of the Capitoline the sentries had fallen asleep on duty and the dogs were silently snoring. But the geese heard the invaders as they climbed the hill and they sent up such a cackling and honking and flapping of wings that captain Marcus Manlius woke abruptly, grabbed up his sword, and rushed out to the wall, calling his men as he ran. He was first to the wall, but others soon appeared at his right and at his left. They threw the Gauls back from the cliff.

The siege continued on for a few more weeks but the Gauls grew bored and decided to make a treaty. The Romans were able to buy peace at a great cost. But Rome endured and one day grew to be a great empire.

The Roman leaders negotiated with the Celtic leader Brennus for the price Rome would pay for the Gauls to leave. They decided on 1000 pounds of gold. But the Gauls used cheater weights that were heavier than standard. When the Romans complained,  Brennus said” Vae Victus”, "woe to the vanquished", and threw his sword onto the scale as well.

‘Celtic warriors, climbing the Capitoline hill, where the Romans were hiding. Modern illustration.

Once the Romans had taken over the whole of Italy, they did not stop their expansion. This map shows you how the Roman empire grew bigger and bigger until it surrounded the Mediterranean Sea. How did the Romans become so powerful?

5 – Expanding the republic: legions and the Punic Wars

 As Rome grew stronger, it began to conquer neighbouring peoples in Italy. Its armies were organised in legions, large units of about 5,000 soldiers called legionaries. Roman soldiers trained hard, built camps quickly and could march long distances. Victory brought land, slaves and booty. Rome also made alliances with some conquered peoples. In return for peace and some rights, these allies had to send soldiers to fight in Roman armies.

top picture: Roman legionaries during the Republican era.

bottom: overview of one Roman legion

Rome’s biggest enemy, however, was not in Italy but across the sea in North Africa: the rich trading city of Carthage. Between 264 and 146 BC Rome and Carthage fought three long wars, called the Punic Wars. The most famous Carthaginian general was Hannibal. He shocked the Romans by crossing the Alps with his army and even war elephants. He won several great battles in Italy and seemed unbeatable. Many Roman allies began to doubt Rome.

Reconstruction image of ancient Carthage and its harbour as it appeared before Roman conquest - situated in modern day Tunisia

Modern reconstruction drawing of the Carthaginian army crossing the Alps with elephants

In the end the Romans did not give up. They refused to make peace and raised new legions again and again. A Roman general called Scipio attacked Carthage itself and defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. In the third Punic War the Romans destroyed Carthage. After these victories Rome controlled much of the western Mediterranean and became a true empire, ruling many lands and peoples.

Modern reconstruction drawing of the Carthaginian army crossing the Alps with elephants

Reconstruction image of the Battle of Zama at which Hannibal was defeated. Hannibal's army used war elephants. Modern illustration.

Rome's secret weapon

The First Punic War was fought largely over the island of Sicily. This meant a lot of the fighting was at sea where Carthage had the advantage of a much stronger navy than Rome. However, Rome quickly built up a large navy of over 100 ships. Rome also invented the corvus, a type of assault bridge that allowed Rome's superior soldiers to board enemy navy vessels. Rome soon dominated Carthage and won the war.

Modern reconstruction drawings of a sea battle between Rome and Carthage.

“And besides, I think we must destroy Carthage”

Long after Hannibal’s defeat, Carthage was weak and had to obey Rome. Still, some Romans were afraid that the old enemy might rise again. One of them was an old senator called Cato the Elder. He thought Carthage would always be dangerous while it still existed.

Cato developed a famous habit. No matter what he spoke about in the Senate—roads, taxes, laws—he ended every speech with the same line: “And besides, I think Carthage must be destroyed.” 

At first, people may have smiled. But hearing the same warning again and again had an effect. Cato pushed the idea into everyone’s mind: Carthage must go.

Finally, Rome did start a new war. In the Third Punic War, Roman soldiers besieged Carthage, captured it and destroyed the city. Cato did not live to see it, but his one sentence had helped lead Rome to that decision.

Modern drawing that gives an impression of the final battle of Carthage.

Roman triremes sail towards the harbour of the city of Carthage

Modern drawing that gives an impression of the final battle of Carthage.

Roman soldiers use the "turtle" formation, using their shields to make a roof that protects them from arrows and projectiles.

 6 – Greek ideas, Roman power and a new army

Conquering land was not the only way Rome grew. It also absorbed and copied ideas from other cultures. The most important influence came from the Greeks. Long before Rome was strong, Greek settlers had built cities in southern Italy. As Rome expanded, it came into contact with Greek art, stories and science. The Romans admired Greek culture. They adopted many Greek gods and simply gave them Latin names: Zeus became Jupiter, Hera became Juno, and so on. Roman temples and public buildings copied Greek columns and styles. Wealthy Romans learned Greek, read Greek books and sent their sons to Greek teachers.

Modern reconstruction of a Greek house. The Romans copied Greek architecture, so Roman houses looked like Greek houses.

All this expansion had a price. Repeated wars far from home were hard on the old system in which only land-owning citizens served as soldiers. Many small farmers lost their land while they were away fighting. Around 100 BC a general named Gaius Marius introduced important reforms. He allowed poor citizens without land to join the army. The state now provided equipment, training and pay. Service in a legion became a full-time job for many years. After their service, veterans could receive land or money as a reward.

The Roman army had become professional. This made Rome’s legions even stronger and helped the republic to keep and expand its empire. But there was also a danger: these soldiers were often more loyal to their general than to the republic itself, because he paid them and promised rewards. In later lessons you will see how this change helped powerful men to seize power and to turn the proud republic of SPQR into an empire ruled by emperors.

Marius' mules

Gaius Marius also introduced other reforms. To ensure his soldiers were fit he ordered them to go on long route-marches. While doing this they had to carry their own cooking utensils, three days' food rations, a sickle, rope, pick-axe, turf-cutter, shield, sword and javelin. Not surprisingly, Roman legionnaires obtained the nick-name "Marius' mules".

Modern reconstruction of a Roman legionary.

Word Duty

Republic: form of government without a king

SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus – the Senate and the People of Rome.

Senate: group of wise, old men that advised the king. Made laws in the Republic.

Tyranny:  government in which the ruler is cruel, unjust and oppressive.

Consul: head of the senate in the Republic, had the right to command armies

Patricians: ruling class in Rome. 

Plebeians: non-patrician people of Rome

duties: tasks or responsibilities Romans had to do, for example paying taxes or serving in the army.

booty: goods, money or valuables taken by Roman soldiers after winning a war.

peoples assemblies: a meeting of Roman citizens who voted on laws and chose leaders.

Plebeian assembly: assembly of only plebeians. Made laws and elected 10 people’s tribunes

People’s tribune: official that was elected by the plebeian assembly to protect normal people. Had veto powers

Veto: literally means I forbid. Still the word used for the right to stop a law or decision

checks and balances: system where different parts of the government (consuls, senate, tribunes) could limit each other’s power so no one became too powerful.

KEY WORDS (A)

Word Duty

expansion: getting bigger, larger

legion: a Roman military unit that was made up of 5,000 soldiers.

legionaries: Romans soldiers who served in a legion. 

alliance: An agreement between Rome and another people or state to help each other, often in war.

allies: peoples or states that had an alliance with Rome and supported Rome in war.

Punic Wars: three wars that were fought between Rome and Carthage

empire: when a country conquers other lands the country and its new territories are called an empire.

corvus: a special Roman boarding bridge on ships, used to hook enemy ships and let soldiers run across to fight.

superpower: a very strong and powerful country

booty; valuable stolen goods, especially those seized in war.

reforms: important changes made to laws, the army or government

veterans: Roman soldiers who had finished their long service in the army.

Marius' mules: nickname for Roman soldiers under general Marius, who had to carry their own heavy equipment like pack animals.

KEY WORDS (B)

Summary 2.3

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What you can do or explain after this lesson

• what a creation narrative is
• what the evolution theory is
• how both theories are used to explain where humans come from
• what the "Out of Africa" theory means
• how you can  read the family tree of   modern humans
• what paleontologists and archeologists do

TEST YOURSELF

What you can explain or do after this lesson:

1. Why was the location of Rome on the river Tiber useful for trade and defence?
2. What do we mean when we say Rome later became a superpower?
3. Why did the Romans drive out their last king, Tarquinius the Proud?
4. What is a republic, and what was new about this for Rome?
5. What do the letters SPQR stand for, and what does it say about who ruled Rome?
6. Who were the patricians and who were the plebeians in Roman society?
7. What important duties did free male citizens have towards Rome?
8. How did the plebeians slowly gain more political power in the republic?
9. What is a veto, and who in Rome could use it?
10. What is a legion, and why were legions important for Rome’s expansion?
11. Who were Rome’s main enemies in the Punic Wars, and what was the result of these wars for Rome?
12. How did Greek culture and the reforms of Gaius Marius change Rome? (Name one Greek influence and one change in the army.)

What you can do or explain after this lesson

• what a creation narrative is
• what the evolution theory is
• how both theories are used to explain where humans come from
• what the "Out of Africa" theory means
• how you can  read the family tree of   modern humans
• what paleontologists and archeologists do

TEST YOURSELF

KEY

1. Rome was on trade routes and near the sea, so traders and soldiers could move easily, but it was far enough from the coast to be safer from sudden attacks.
2. A superpower is a very strong and powerful state; Rome ruled many lands and peoples around the Mediterranean.
3. Because he behaved like a tyrant: he ruled in a cruel and unfair way and ignored old customs and the Senate.
4. A republic is a form of government without a king; for Rome it meant that power was no longer in the hands of one man.
5. SPQR stands for Senatus Populusque Romanus – the Senate and the People of Rome. It shows that both the Senate and the citizens ruled.
6. Patricians were the old, rich ruling families; plebeians were ordinary free people such as farmers, craftsmen and small traders.
7. They had to pay taxes and, most importantly, serve in the army when needed.
8. They formed their own plebeian assembly and elected people’s tribunes, and step by step they forced the patricians to share power.
9. A veto means “I forbid”; consuls and people’s tribunes could use it to stop a law or decision.
10. A legion was a Roman army unit of about 5,000 soldiers; legions were well trained and helped Rome conquer and control new lands.
11. Rome’s main enemy was Carthage; after the Punic Wars, Rome destroyed Carthage and controlled much of the western Mediterranean.
12. Greek culture gave Rome gods, art, buildings and books from Greece; Marius allowed poor citizens to become professional soldiers, making the army stronger but also more loyal to their generals.

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