Understanding Leadership Part 2

• Business Administration
• Higher Education (non-degree)

Kurt Lewin identified three main management styles. Which of the following is NOT one of them?

1. Autocratic
2. Democratic
3. Laissez-faire
4. Transactional

How does a democratic management style typically affect group behavior?

1. It discourages creativity and innovation.
2. It fosters collaboration and shared decision-making.
3. It leads to confusion and lack of direction.
4. It increases the likelihood of authoritarian control.

Which of the following factors is LEAST likely to influence a leader's management style?

1. The team’s level of experience and skill
2. The leader's personal traits and values
3. The physical environment in which the team operates
4. The brand of technology used by the team

According to the Great Man Theory, leadership is primarily:

1. Inherited and based on innate traits.
2. Developed through learning and experience.
3. Determined by environmental factors.
4. A result of effective teamwork and collaboration.

Trait theory suggests that effective leaders share specific characteristics. Which of the following traits is most commonly associated with this theory?

1. Flexibility in decision-making
2. A high degree of intelligence
3. Being in a position of formal authority
4. Willingness to follow others

Which of the following statements about behavioral theory is true?

1. It focuses exclusively on the personal traits of leaders.
2. It argues that leadership is an innate ability.
3. It emphasizes what leaders do, rather than who they are.
4. It rejects the importance of teamwork in leadership.

Which of the following is a key difference between a leader and a manager?

1. Leaders focus on long-term vision, while managers focus on short-term tasks.
2. Leaders avoid taking risks, while managers embrace them.
3. Managers are responsible for inspiring people, while leaders enforce rules.
4. Managers focus on innovation, while leaders prioritize routine operations.

Which of the following scenarios is most aligned with an autocratic management style?

1. A team leader asks for input from all team members before making a decision.
2. A manager dictates tasks without consulting the team and expects strict compliance.
3. A supervisor encourages team members to work independently without much oversight.
4. A project manager facilitates brainstorming sessions and incorporates ideas from the group.

In the context of management styles, which of the following environments is most likely to require a directive (autocratic) leadership approach?

1. A creative design team brainstorming ideas.
2. A team responding to a crisis where immediate action is needed.
3. A group of experienced professionals working on a long-term project.
4. A classroom environment encouraging student participation.

Which of the following is a criticism of the Great Man Theory?

1. It emphasizes leadership as a skill that can be developed.
2. It fails to account for environmental and situational factors.
3. It focuses on behaviors rather than traits.
4. It provides a flexible approach to leadership development.

Group Exercise

I will divide the class into 3 groups.  Each group will be allocated a leadership style.  Create a table outlining the positive and negative effects of each leadership style on the individual and the group.  You have 20 minutes.

• Group 1 - Servant Leadership
• Group 2 - Transformational Leadership
• Group 3 - Transactional Leadership

Appoint someone to present your findings to the main group.

Servant leadership is a leadership philosophy and style that emphasizes the leader's primary role as a servant to their team or organization. In this approach, the leader's main objective is to serve and support their employees or followers, empowering them to reach their full potential. 

Transformational Leadership is a leadership style that focuses on inspiring and motivating team members to innovate, grow, and exceed expectations by creating a shared vision and fostering a culture of change. Transformational leaders aim to develop their followers' potential and align their personal goals with the objectives of the organisation.

Transactional Leadership is a leadership style focused on structured tasks, clear roles, and reward-based performance management. This approach emphasises achieving specific goals by following established procedures and maintaining organisational stability. It operates on a system of rewards and punishments to motivate team members.

What is the difference between power and authority?

Power and authority, while related, are distinct concepts. Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others, while authority is the right to give orders or make decisions. Authority is a form of power that is recognized and accepted as legitimate, whereas power can be exercised through various means, including coercion or manipulation, regardless of whether it's considered legitimate

She is a fines and penalties officer and has to go to court to provide evidence when someone refuses to pay their penalty. 

She is your best worker, turning in more files than anyone else in the office.  Her attendance is good and she is popular with the team.

In this scenario, which leadership style would be the most appropriate?

Transactional Leadership

Autocratic Leadership

Democratic Leadership

Lassez-faire Leadership

Servant Leadership

Explain why you chose the leadership style for this scenario?

Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence Framework (2004), which outlines five key components of emotional intelligence:

The Assignment

You are required to reference various management models in your answers.

For AC2.1 and AC2.2, you are expected to evaluate yourself in the context of a specific leadership model.

We will now explore these models, discuss their application in your assignment, and consider how selecting a model can guide and enhance your behaviours."

Likert's Management Systems

Exploitative Authoritative

Top-down Decision Making:

Decisions are made solely by the leader or top management without input from subordinates.

There is little to no delegation of authority or responsibility.

2. Lack of Trust:

Leaders have minimal trust in their employees.

Communication is limited and usually flows in one direction—from the top down.

3. Control through Fear and Punishment:

Motivation is often achieved through fear, threats, and punishments rather than rewards or encouragement.

Leaders use coercion to ensure compliance.

4. Minimal Employee Involvement:

Employees have little to no involvement in decision-making processes.

Their feedback or opinions are generally ignored.

5. Low Morale and Productivity:

This system often leads to low employee morale, lack of engagement, and high turnover rates.

While short-term compliance might be achieved, long-term productivity and innovation suffer.

Example of Application:

An exploitative authoritative system may be found in organizations with rigid hierarchies, such as some military or factory settings in the past, where strict control and discipline were prioritized over collaboration and trust.

In modern workplaces, this system is considered outdated and counterproductive, as it stifles employee creativity and commitment.

Benevolent Authoritative

Centralized Decision-Making

Decisions are still made by leaders at the top, but some minor delegation of authority may occur.

Employees are given limited opportunities to provide input, though their opinions may not have significant influence.

2. Motivation Through Rewards

Leaders rely on rewards rather than fear and punishment to motivate employees.

Some degree of trust is extended to subordinates, but it is limited.

3. Limited Communication

Communication is mostly top-down, but occasional feedback from employees is accepted.

Leaders may listen to employees' suggestions, but the final decision-making power remains with management.

4. Paternalistic Leadership Style

Leaders adopt a "father-figure" role, maintaining control while showing care for their employees' well-being.

They aim to create a positive work environment but still maintain authority.

5. Moderate Employee Morale and Productivity

Employees experience slightly higher morale compared to the Exploitative Authoritative System.

However, their potential for creativity and engagement is still limited due to restricted participation in decision-making.

Example of Application

This system might be observed in organizations where managers aim to create a structured environment but show concern for employees’ needs. For example, in a family-owned business, the owner might provide incentives and rewards while retaining control over all key decisions.

Consultative System

 Increased Employee Involvement

Leaders seek input from employees and involve them in decision-making, especially on matters that affect their work.

While major decisions are still made by top management, employees’ feedback is valued and considered.

2. Two-Way Communication

Communication flows both ways—top-down and bottom-up.

Employees feel encouraged to share their ideas and opinions, fostering a more open and transparent environment.

3. Motivation Through Rewards and Recognition

Motivation is primarily achieved through incentives, rewards, and recognition of employees' contributions.

Fear and punishment are minimal, and leaders strive to build trust with their teams.

4. Trust and Respect for Employees

Managers exhibit a higher level of trust in employees' abilities and judgment compared to the authoritative systems.

Employees feel respected and valued, leading to better engagement and morale.

5. Improved Morale and Productivity

The increased involvement and communication result in higher employee morale and job satisfaction.

Productivity tends to improve as employees feel a sense of ownership and commitment to organizational goals.

6. Decision-Making Structure

Decision-making is semi-decentralized.

Managers rely on employees’ insights for day-to-day decisions, while strategic decisions remain with senior leadership.

Example of Application

The consultative system may be seen in organizations that value employee input but still maintain clear authority lines. For example, a mid-sized company may hold regular team meetings to gather feedback and suggestions but reserve final decisions for the management team.

Participative System

Shared Decision-Making

Decision-making is decentralized, with employees at all levels actively contributing to decisions that impact their work.

Leaders encourage participation from individuals and teams, creating a sense of ownership over outcomes.

2. Open and Two-Way Communication

Communication is highly interactive and flows freely in all directions—upward, downward, and laterally.

Employees and managers maintain open lines of communication, which fosters trust and transparency.

3. High Levels of Trust and Respect

Leaders place significant trust in employees’ abilities and judgment, empowering them to take initiative.

Employees feel valued and respected, which leads to strong workplace relationships.

4. Motivation Through Teamwork and Engagement

Motivation comes from intrinsic factors such as shared goals, teamwork, and personal growth opportunities.

Leaders focus on collaboration, recognition, and the development of individual talents.

5. Strong Team Orientation

Teams are central to the participative system, with group problem-solving and consensus-building being standard practices.

Teams work cohesively to achieve organizational objectives.

6. High Morale and Productivity

The participative system fosters exceptional morale, job satisfaction, and engagement.

Productivity and innovation thrive as employees feel empowered to contribute fully to the organization’s success.

Benefits of the Participative System

Employees are more motivated and committed to organizational goals.

It leads to better decision-making due to the inclusion of diverse perspectives.

Builds a culture of trust, respect, and collaboration.

Encourages creativity and innovation, as employees feel free to share ideas.

Challenges of the Participative System

Decision-making may take longer due to the need for consensus.

Not all employees may feel comfortable participating, requiring additional training or encouragement.

It requires leaders who are skilled in facilitating collaboration and managing diverse viewpoints.

Example of Application

This system is commonly seen in modern organizations with a flat hierarchy, such as tech startups or companies with strong team-based cultures. For example, in a software development company, teams might collaborate on every stage of a project, from ideation to execution, with leadership acting as facilitators rather than top-down decision-makers.

Key Principles of Likert’s Approach:

Effective organisations operate closer to System 4, fostering trust, teamwork, and collaboration.

The more participative and inclusive a management system is, the more likely the organisation will perform effectively.

Moving from authoritarian to participative management increases job satisfaction, motivation, and productivity.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt

1

Leader Makes the Decision and Announces It

Characteristics:

The leader retains full control and makes the decision unilaterally.

Team members are not involved in the decision-making process.

Communication is one-way (top-down).

Application:

Used in situations where quick decisions are needed, or the leader has all the necessary expertise.

Example: During a crisis or emergency, where immediate action is required.

2

Leader Sells the Decision

Characteristics:

The leader makes the decision but explains and justifies it to the team.

The goal is to gain team buy-in and reduce resistance.

Still primarily one-way communication, but with some effort to persuade.

Application:

Suitable when the leader believes the decision is the best option but wants to ensure the team is motivated to follow through.

3

 Leader Presents the Idea and Invites Questions

Characteristics:

The leader makes the decision but seeks clarification or feedback from the team.

Team members can ask questions, and the leader provides explanations.

Some two-way communication begins, but the decision is still ultimately made by the leader.

Application:

Effective when leaders want to involve employees slightly more while maintaining control over the decision.

4

Leader Presents a Tentative Decision and Invites Discussion

Characteristics:

The leader proposes a decision but shows openness to change based on team input.

Team members are encouraged to discuss and influence the decision.

Two-way communication increases, and trust is built.

Application:

Used when collaboration is needed to refine a decision, but the leader still has the final say.

5

Leader Presents the Problem and Seeks Suggestions

Characteristics:

The leader outlines the problem and invites team members to suggest solutions.

While the leader retains decision-making authority, team contributions play a significant role in shaping the final outcome.

Application:

Ideal when the leader values team expertise and wants to build engagement while maintaining ultimate responsibility.

6

Leader Defines Limits and Asks the Team to Decide

Characteristics:

The leader sets clear boundaries and objectives but delegates decision-making to the team.

The team has significant freedom to determine how to solve the problem.

The leader provides guidance and support as needed.

Application:

Effective for empowering experienced teams and encouraging ownership of decisions.

7

Team Has Full Freedom to Decide

Characteristics:

The leader allows the team complete autonomy to make decisions within defined parameters.

The leader trusts the team to plan and execute without interference.

Communication is primarily team-driven, with the leader acting as a resource.

Application:

Best suited for highly skilled, motivated, and experienced teams that require little supervision.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership

Telling

The S1 leadership style in the Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model puts a high emphasis on directive behaviour and a low emphasis on supportive behaviour. A leader’s primary concern lays with the task delivery and less with the personal needs of the subordinates. Typical behaviour for a S1 leadership style, according to Hersey, is offering step-by-step instructions, clear explanation of the consequences of non-performance and close supervision. In such a situation, it is important that the task is clearly defined and the stages of the process are easy to follow. This is important because the leader believes that the follower (R1) either does not know what to do or is unwilling and requires therefore a certain degree of coercive power. Blanchard, on the other hand, believes that this style should be used for D1 followers who are highly ‘Enthousiastic Beginners‘. They already have the motivation to do the tasks required, which lowers the need for supportive behaviour. But they still lack the competence, which increases their need for directive behaviour.

Unable and unwilling

A follower with a R1-status is unable to complete the required task, because they do not possess the necessary set of skills to perform well. Moreover, they are either unwilling to deliver the required task or lack self-confidence.

Selling

The next leadership style is the high directive and high supportive S2 leadership style. Hersey argued that this style is needed for R2 followers who are willing, but not able to perform a task. The leader’s style should therefore be concerned with increasing the confidence and skills of followers so that they can ultimately take on more responsibility for their actions. Blanchard, however, believes this style is necessary for D2 followers, who used to be highly enthousiastic in the beginning but who lost confidence because their competences are failing them. These ‘Disillusioned Learners‘ therefore need a leader with a higher concern for supportive behaviour that helps them gain confidence and become motivated again

Unable and willing

A R2 follower is just like a R1 follower unable to perform a certain task, but in contrast to a R1 follower, willing to try anyway. In other words: they are motivated to attempt the task even though they lack the skills, knowledge and/or ability to do so. This follower style is often seen with new employees who are keen to impress their supervisor, but still lack the work experience to be productive right from the start. Because of this, Blanchard decided to label this follower style with D1, as it is likely to be the first stage of a follower’s development. As followers gain experience they reach development level 2 (D2) and gain some competence, but their commitment drops because the task may be more complex than the follower had originally perceived at the start of the task.

Participating

The S3 leadership style applies to both R3 and D3 followers. This style (still) shows high supportive behaviours, but low directive behaviours. This may involve listening, praise and a high level of interaction between leader and follower. In addition, the leader puts a high level of trust in the follower to achieve the day-to-day tasks as the follower’s competence has also grown over time. The leader will therefore only encourage and offer feedback when needed to motivate and develop the subordinate, but not as a comment on the task performance. This is because the leader believes that the follower is capable enough of achieving the required tasks largely independently.

Able and Unwilling

R3 followers are likely to be able to perform well on their task, since they have developed the necessary skill set. The problem, however, is that they are unwilling to do so. The reason for this behaviour are twofold: followers could be unmotived to comply with the leader’s request or could (still) be nervous about performing the task without enough support and encouragement from the leader. In Blanchard’s vocabulary of the D3 follower style, commitment is variable as it starts off as low, but gradually grows bigger due to more self-esteem and confidence untill a follower reaches D4.

Delegating

The final leadership style assumes a low supportive and a low directive behaviour and applies to R4 and D4 followers. This is very much a ‘hands-off approach’ as the subordinate is perfectly able and willing to perform the tasks independently and with great responsibility. The leader can further encourage autonomy, while keeping an eye on not overloading the follower with responsibility and not withdrawing completely from the follower’s proximity. For these type of followers it is thus important as a leader to keep observing and monitoring them (albeit to a far lesser degree), in order to provide the necessary support if needed.

Able and willing

Lastly, we have the R4 followers: they are ready, able and willing to perform. This means that followers are experienced at the required task and comfortable with their own ability to do it well and independently. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for it. In this stage, both competence and commitment are considered to be high in terms of Blanchard’s version of the Situational Leadership Model.

Fiedler's Contingency Model

Fiedler's Contingency Model highlights that effective leadership depends on the match between a leader’s style and the situation's demands. It identifies two key leadership styles: task-oriented and relationship-oriented, measured by the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale. The model evaluates situational favorableness based on three factors:

Leader-Member Relations – The trust and respect between leader and team.

Task Structure – The clarity and structure of the task.

Position Power – The leader’s authority to reward, punish, or influence.

Fiedler argues that no single leadership style is universally effective; instead, leaders must align their style with the situation or adapt the situation to fit their natural style for success.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model was developed by Fred Fiedler in the 1960s. It proposes that the effectiveness of a leader is contingent upon the fit between the leader's style and the favourability of the situation. Unlike other leadership theories, Fiedler's model suggests that leadership style is fixed and cannot easily be changed.

Fiedler's Leadership Styles

1. Task-Oriented Leaders

These leaders have a strong bias towards getting the job done without worrying about their rapport or bond with their followers.

They can, of course, run the risk of failing to deliver if they do not engage enough with the people around them.

2. Relationship-Oriented Leaders

These leaders care much more about emotional engagement with the people they work with, but sometimes to the detriment of the task and results.

Fiedler said neither style is inherently superior. However, he asserted that certain leadership challenges suit one style or the other better. 

Match the person to the circumstances.

Fiedler believed that a leader's personality and natural leadership style are fixed and difficult to change. His Contingency Model emphasizes matching the leader to the right situation rather than expecting leaders to adapt their style to fit different circumstances.

This contrasts with Situational Leadership, which focuses on leaders adjusting their behavior based on the needs of their team and the task at hand. Fiedler's approach instead assesses the situation’s favorableness (e.g., leader-member relations, task structure, and position power) and aligns it with a leader's natural style—either task-oriented or relationship-oriented—for optimal effectiveness.

Least Preferred Co-Worker Scale

Think of a person with whom you work or have worked least well. You may have liked or disliked the person; what is important for the purpose of the questionnaire is that the two of you did not work well together. (That is why it is called the “Least Preferred Coworker” (LPC) questionnaire.) Describe the person, using the following scale (e.g., if you think of this person as “pleasant,” check number 8 on the first item). Go through the material carefully; the scales reverse throughout the questionnaire.

Results

When you have finished, sum your answers for your total score (which will be between 18 and 144). If your total score was between 18 and 57, you have a central tendency to be task focused. If your score was between 64 and 144, you have a central tendency to be relationship focused. If you scored between 58 and 63, pick the endpoint to which you were closer.

Note that the high scores on the questionnaire reflect a positie asvsessment of your least preferred coworker. If you describe this person in positive terms, your preferred style is relationship-focused. If you describe this person in negative terms (with low scores), your preferred style is task-focused. 

Fiedler and Chemers noted that:

… the high LPC person, who perceives his [sic] least preferred co-worker in a more favourable, more differentiated manner, has as his basic goal the desire to be 'related.'… The low LPC person has a different hierarchy of goals. His basic goal is to accomplish the task. His self-esteem is derived from [task] achievement

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

In the 1960s, social psychologist Douglas McGregor developed two contrasting theories that explained how managers' beliefs about what motivates their people can affect their management style. He labelled these Theory X and Theory Y. These theories continue to be important today.

Complete the assessment available on Teams

Adair's Action Centred Leadership Model

John Adair's simple Action-Centred Leadership model provides a great blueprint for leadership and the management of any team, group or organisation. Action Centred Leadership is also a simple leadership and management model, which makes it easy to remember, apply and adapt to your own situation.

Good managers and leaders should have full command of the three main areas of the Action Centred Leadership model and should be able to use each of the elements according to the situation. Being able to do all of these things, and keep the right balance, gets results, builds morale, improves quality, develops teams and productivity, and is the mark of a successful manager and leader.

The Leader

Assignment

When discussing the factors that affect the leadership style adopted you may wish to mention trait and behavioural theory.  McGregor's XY theory is also suitable.

The Team

Assignment

You may wish to mention Hersey/Blanchard or Tannenbaum and Schmidt

The Environment

Assignment

You may wish to mention levels of power, workplace culture, and position within the company.  

The Task

Assignment

You may wish to mention the least preferred co-worker or Adair's Action Centred Leadership

The Introduction

Assignment

You may wish to mention Kurt Lewin and his 3 leadership styles as well as Likert to introduce the idea of a continuum or scale of leadership from autocratic to participative and his findings on improved employee satisfaction.

The Self-Assessment

Assignment

You must choose a leadership model and assess your current performance against this model.  Undertake at least 3 self-assessments. What is your dominant style?  What type of environment are you working in?  How does your natural style fit with your environment?  How do you rate your current behaviours against the leadership model?  What do you need to improve?  

Your actions

Assignment

What actions should you undertake that will make you a better situational manager?  These actions should relate to a leadership model.  Ideas include rating your staff according to Hersey/Blanchard's model and adapting your leadership style to suit.  Undertaking a skills gap analysis to help upskill your team allowing you to move to a participative style.  Improving/collating instructions for mundane tasks to assist new staff allowing them to build skill faster.

Leadership Styles

Assignment

You may wish to answer in table format.  Be sure to mention the effects on individuals and teams.  You should also consider including servant leadership, and transformational and transactional leadership.

Any Questions?